UNESCO Tentative List: Mughal Mosques in Bangladesh

Role: Researcher, Jointly with the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Bangladesh.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE) significantly influenced architectural traditions across the Indian subcontinent, synthesizing global, regional, and local forms, symbolism, and technologies. Mughal rulers—Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb—patronized elaborate monuments that embodied authority, legitimacy, and cultural syncretism. Their architectural patronage not only reflected imperial power but also facilitated cultural integration across the diverse territories of the Indian subcontinent.

In eastern Bengal (present-day Bangladesh), Mughal dominance, consolidated by Islam Khan in Dhaka in 1609, faced continuous resistance from local powers, Ahom rulers, and pirates controlling fluvial trade routes. Despite these challenges, extensive mosque-building activities flourished from the late 17th through the 18th centuries. These mosques, predominantly constructed in brick with terracotta and stucco ornamentation, adapted imperial Mughal styles to regional religious landscapes, traditions, and ecological contexts. Their architectural morphology—single-aisled plans, prominent central arches, domes atop octagonal drums adorned with inverted lotus finials, and façades decorated with terracotta—exemplified localized expressions of imperial aesthetics and spiritual symbolism.

The proliferation of mosque construction during this period not only reflected social stratification and economic dynamics but also facilitated interactions between urban and rural communities, merchants, ruling elites, and the common populace. Moreover, these mosques became central hubs of cultural interchange, social mobility, religious devotion, and commercial activities within a dynamic fluvial environment. The integration of Sufi shrines further reinforced the multidimensional significance of these sites, embedding them within broader networks of power, piety, and social cohesion.

The architectural ensemble of Mughal mosques in Bangladesh thus represents an extraordinary synthesis of global, regional, and local architectural traditions, technological innovations, and social transformations, affirming their Outstanding Universal Value under UNESCO Criterion (iv). Despite some interventions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries—such as mosaics and tile additions—these alterations are recognized as authentic cultural continuities, aligned with the Nara Document on Authenticity. However, some mosques face challenges to structural integrity due to environmental factors like salinity and material deterioration, necessitating informed conservation practices.

https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6672/

UNESCO Tentative List: Mughal Forts on Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka

Role: Researcher, Jointly with Mohammad Tahajibul Hossain and the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Bangladesh.

The property titled Mughal Forts on Fluvial Terrains in Dhaka comprises four historically significant fortifications—Hajiganj Fort, Sonakanda Fort, Idrakpur Fort, and Lalbagh Fort—strategically established during Mughal governance (1610–1717 CE) to consolidate imperial power and manage military and administrative control in the fluvial delta of Bengal. These forts, nominated on Bangladesh’s UNESCO Tentative List (Ref.: 6675) in 2023, reflect distinctive architectural adaptations of mainstream Mughal forms to suit Bengal’s dynamic riverine topography.

Originally developed as naval fortifications by Mughal Subahdars Islam Khan and Mir Jumla, the forts integrated local construction techniques—particularly the resilient mud-based fortification traditions adapted by local Afghan and Bengali rulers—to withstand the region’s unique amphibious warfare context. These forts, primarily built with locally sourced burnt bricks and lime-surki mortar, symbolize a unique synthesis of imperial Mughal military architecture and indigenous technological adaptations, influenced by persistent confrontations with Arakanese, Portuguese, and Dutch pirates.

Hajiganj Fort (circa 1610 CE), situated near Narayanganj along the Shitalakhya river, served as a significant military hub under Subahdar Islam Khan’s operations against local Bara Bhuiyans. Sonakanda and Idrakpur forts, attributed to Subahdar Mir Jumla (1660–1663 CE), reinforced the defensive network safeguarding Dhaka from naval invasions and secured critical trade routes. The later and more elaborate Lalbagh Fort (originally Qila Aurangabad), initiated by Subahdar Mohammad Azam Shah in 1678 and subsequently managed by Shaista Khan, embodies the administrative ambitions and residential aspirations of Mughal provincial power. Despite its incompletion due to political disruptions and personal tragedies, Lalbagh Fort remains an iconic landmark representing Mughal urban planning and architectural grandeur, intricately aligned with imperial symbolism, gardens, elaborate water systems, and administrative functions.

These monuments collectively highlight Dhaka’s ascension as the financial and strategic capital of Bengal, driven by riverine connectivity and commercial prosperity, notably in textile manufacturing (especially muslins) and trade. The Mughal establishment strategically capitalized on Dhaka’s fluvial network to facilitate the expansion and protection of commerce, notably shifting Bengal’s economic hub from Sonargaon to Dhaka, and later from Dhaka to Murshidabad as geopolitical dynamics evolved.

This architectural ensemble meets UNESCO Criteria (ii) and (iv), exhibiting significant cultural interchange through technological and artistic adaptation, illustrating how Mughal architectural practices transformed profoundly in response to Bengal’s geographic complexities. Compared to grander Mughal forts in North India, Bengal’s forts are modest yet exceptionally functional, demonstrating nuanced cultural and material adaptations to the deltaic environment.

All components remain under state protection, demonstrating a high degree of authenticity, despite environmental threats and urban encroachment due to river siltation and landscape transformation. Restoration efforts by Bangladesh’s Department of Archaeology have preserved the forts’ integrity, ensuring their value as symbols of Mughal adaptation and strategic ingenuity remains intact.